Why Corundum Preceded Sapphire in Europe

Corundum is a family of crystals in contrast of the beryl group of minerals. The colorless, clear variety of corundum has the chemical formula Al2O3 (aluminum oxide) yet acts for its mineral family in the same way goshenite (Be3Al2Si6O18) acts for the beryl group. Similarity between the corundum family and beryl group end there. A corundum without any color may be referred by white sapphire. Traces of iron, chromium, titanium, and vanadium can color the white sapphire grey, brown, purple, pink, orange, red, blue, or violet. Rubies are the result of the preeminence of chromium and are always red but may vary in opaqueness. Burmese rubies, for example, are completely opaque. Sapphires are the result of a mixture of the trace elements (rather than the dominance of one) so are sold in as a variety of colors and properties that depend on where the gemstone was mined. A parti sapphire that shows two colors was probably mined in Montana, for example. A desirous gem collector would begin his search for one there.

The word “corundum” comes from Sanskrit meaning both ruby and sapphire, whereas the

word “sapphire” comes from Latin meaning “blue” at the time referring to lapis lazuli. The use of sapphire as referring to a blue crystal hadn't occurred in Europe until the Middle Ages. The pink-colored sapphire which can happen to be called a ruby, but the proper identification of the ruby is red corundum. This distinction is very important since the fluorescence of the red and pink corundum may be similar while the blue corundum can be quenched by the absence of the trace element chromium. For this reason, the fluorescence of a blue corundum means it's definitely mined.

Albertus Magnus ranked the ruby first to the amethyst in clarity, then contrasts amethyst

with chalcedony and ruby with beryl. The ruby which the Greeks called “anthrax” wasn't filled with “clay and dregs” as one of his points leading me to believe a beryl can be saturated with inclusions. For him, rubies were categorized as carbuncles — red crystals that were thought to phosphoresce in the dark. He describes a better type of carbuncle as one that glows in the dark yet thought of them as clear, red, and hard in general. In the attempt to make differences among these precious stones, he cites Aristotle as being correct; there being just three rather than eleven varieties; so names them granatus (garnet), balagius (red spinel), and rubinus (ruby) as the subcategories. Red spinel which he also called palatius was rumored by Aristotle to be weaker than the ruby, thus, they formed “a house” also called “a palace” in the places where these gems were mined. The palatium therefore referred to a palace.

Quoting Magnus, he wrote, “Therefore they say that this is the reason why precious stones,

more than anything else, have wonderful powers […] For in the upper [spheres], they say, there are, as it were, four colors, which are also the colors most frequently found in precious stones. One of these is the color of the starless sphere, which is called sapphire by everyone; and this color is pre-eminently that of the saphirus by it is named.” The correspondence between the heavens and precious stones ranked above the others. The bright, white star were the color adamas, for example, while the Sun and Mars corresponded with the color of the carbuncle. In describing the different colors of stars, the subcategory of carbuncle gets utilized. For other stars than the Sun have the preeminent color red. Furthermore, the carbuncle gained its power from the Sun. The metaphysical properties (virtues) of sapphires emerge from the writing of Albertus Magnus while trying to make sense of the difference between red and blue corundum. To me, here’s evidence that (i.) blue corundum was included in the palatium and (ii.) palatium was discovered with the mineral hyacinthi having the colors red, yellow, and blue. He assigns the virtues to the blue sapphire such as giving the wearer natural cleverness, happiness, even riches. I will mention here, Galen tested the virtue of jade which was imparted to him by touch. Hence, the special protection offered against poisons was in the form of a ring, because such jewels were worn by bishops by decreed by Pope Innocent III, with the pavilion in contact with the skin.

The legend of the Orphanus jewel recalls the story of a carbuncle once set in the royal crown of the Roman Emperor. The jewel was believed to be so brilliant and fiery red that it shone by night. Carbuncles in general were thought to have this power by virtue of the Sun. At the time in the fourteenth century when Albert Magnus wrote his account of the Orphanus jewel, he euphemistically said, “Nowadays it does not shine in the dark. It is said to preserve the royal honor.” The interpretation by the translator of this line says the corundum was replaced by a sapphire although the identity of the Orphanus jewel stays a mystery.

Medieval depiction of the royal crown.

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Galen (129–199) was the most prolific writer on medicine during late antiquity, He studied medicine at Pergamum, Smyrna, Alexandria, and Corinth, and practiced as a physician to gladiators at Rome. After leaving Rome for Pergamum, he became physician to Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, and traveled within imperial circles for the rest of his life.

Albert Magnus (1193-1280) was instructed in the writings of Aristotle before taking-on orders. He became a Dominican about the year 1223 and studied theology. As a Master of Theology, he was able to become a professor at the University of Paris where Thomas Aquinas studied under him. Of the many topics that were included in Albert Magnus’s writings; astrology, mineralogy, and alchemy were part of a corpus on natural sciences. For the most part, he became known as a magician after his death for his study of alchemy.